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From: karl h schwerin <>
Subject: [WHITNEY-L] The Farmhouse and the Farmer
Date: Sun, 7 Sep 2003 13:24:00 -0600 (MDT)


_Everyday Life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony__, by George Francis Dow,
originally published in 1935 by The Society for the Preservation of New
England Antiquities, but republished in 1988 by Dover Publications

Chap. VII. The Farmhouse and the Farmer (pp. 91-100)

"The farmers in the early days had few conveniences and comforts
and were largely dependent for the supply of their wants upon the products
of their farms. But little food was purchased. At the outset domestic
animals were too valuable to be killed for food but deer and other wild
game were plentiful. When this no longer became necessary and an animal
was killed by a farmer, it was the custom to lend pieces of the meat to
the neighbors, to be repaid in kind when animals were killed by them. In
this way the fresh meat supply was kept up for a long time by the killing
of one animal. Other parts of the meat were salted and kept for a number
of months before all was eaten. Nearly every family had a beef and a pork
barrel (called a 'powdering tub'), from which most of the meat used in
summer was taken. Meat was not found on the table every day" (91).
The farmhouse chimney was large enough to accommodate logs four
feet long or more. "In making a fire a backlog, a foot or more in
diameter, was placed against the back of the fireplace; a forestick was
then placed across the andirons in front, and wood piled between,
producing a hot fire, and giving the kitchen a very cheerful appearance.
Ample ventilation was had by the constant current of air that passed up
the chimney" (91).
"In sitting before an open fire it was often complained that while
one was roasted in front he was frozen in the back and this led to the use
in nearly every family of a long seat made of boards called a 'settle,'
with a high back to keep off the wind from behind, whichwas usually
occupied by the older members of the family" (91-92).
"At night, any fire that remained was carefully covered with ashes
and was expected to keep until morning to kindle for the next day." "If
the fire didn't keep over, someone would go with a fire pan to a neighbor"
to borrow some fire. Alternatively a new fire was kindled from the tinder
box, containing flint and steel. "Homemade matches, which had been dipped
in melted brimstone (sulfur), were set on fire by touching the burning
tinder Sometimes fire was kindled by flashing powder in the pan of a
flint-lock musket, thereby setting paper on fire. Friction matches did
not come into use until about 1832" (92).
"The cooking was done over and before the open fire. Boiling was
done by suspending kettles from pot hooks which were upon the crane and of
different lengths to accommodate the height of the fire. Meat was roasted
by passing through it an iron rod called a spit and this was rested on
brackets on the back of the andirons in front of the fire" where it could
be repeatedly turned. "Potatoes and eggs were roasted in the ashes by
wrapping them in wet leaves or paper, and then covering with hot coals. In
half an hour or so the potatoes would be well cooked" (92).
"At first bread and other things were baked in a Dutch oven. It
was used for both baking and frying." Indian bannock, when baked and made
into milk toast was considered a dish fit to be 'set before a king'!
"In the early days baked pumpkin and milk was a favorite dish. A
hard-shelled pumpkin had a hole cut in the stem end large enough to admit
the hand. The seeds and inside tissue were carefully removed, the piece
cut out was replaced , and the pumpkin was then put in a hot oven. When
cooked it was filled with new milk and the contents eaten with a spoon.
When emptied the shells were often used as receptacles for balls of yarn,
remnants of cloth and other small articles."
"Bean porridge was another dish that was popular. In cold weather it was
often made in large quantities and considered to grow better with age.
Hence the old saying:
'Bean porridge hot;
Bean porridge cold;
Bean porridge in the pot,
Nine days old" (98)
"The skins of animals killed on the farm were tanned by some local
tanner and a year or more was required by the old process, but it produced
an excellent quality of leather" (93).
"Nearly all the young people and some of the older ones went
barefoot during the summer. In going to meeting on Sunday the girls and
young women often walked a number of miles," wearing heavy shoes or going
barefooted. They carried their light shoes to save wear until they were
near the meeting house (93-94).
"In the early years following the settlement, all clothing or
materials were brought from overseas, but in time, flax and wool were
produced on many farms, and the women of the family were capable of taking
the wool as it came from the sheep, cleansing, carding and spinning it
into yarn, and then weaving it into cloth, from which they cut and made
the clothes for the family. The carded rolls were spun into yarn upon
the hand wheel. Five skeins was considered a good day's work (94).
"The yarn was woven into cloth on the hand loom, which was a
ponderous affair and occupied a great deal of room. Not every family
possessed a loom, but there were weavers in every locality. Weaving was
hard work and five or six yards was considered a good day's work. Cotton
was sometimes bought and worked in about the same manner as wool. The dye
pot was of earthenware and had its place in the chimney corner just inside
the fireplace. It was covered with a piece of board or plank on which the
children often sat. The dye was made of indigo dissolved in urine (which
helped to set the dye in the yarn - KHS). Into this the yarn was put and
remained until it was colored. When the yarn was wrung out, or the
contents disturbed, the odor that arose" was quite unpleasant (94).
...
"Flax was grown on the farm. It was pulled in the fall and placed
upon the ground, where it remained a number of months until the woody
portion was rotted and the fiber became pliable. When at the right stage"
it was broken up, beaten and combed. "The combing took out the short and
broken pieces which was called tow and spun into wrapping twine, small
ropes and bagging. When the flax had been combed sufficiently it was put
upon the distaff and spun" on a linen wheel. "The thread when spun and
woven into cloth, was made up into shirts, sheets, table covers, dresses,
handkerchiefs, strainer cloths, etc. Ropes used about the farm were often
homemade of linen and tow. In the summer men wore tow and linen clothes"
(95).
"Cider mills were found on a great many farms where the apples,
which were mostly natural fruit, were made into cider. This was a common
drink and found a place upon the table three times a day with each meal,
and was carried into the fields to quench thirst forenoon and afternoon.
The men of those days assumed to be unable to labor without a liberal
supply of cider, as water seldom agreed with them. The drawing and
putting of cider upon the table usually fell to the younger members of the
family and was generally considered an irksome task. Cider which had
been drawn for a little time and had become warm was not considered fit to
drink. Any that remained in the mug was emptied into a barrel kept for
the purpose in the cellar and was soon converted into vinegar. In this
way the family supply was made and kept up, and it generally was of the
best quality" (95-96).
It was common among farmers to specify for their widow in their
wills that she should be provided with so many barrels of cider each year,
along with a certain number of bushels of vegetables, corn, rye, etc.,
together with a horse to ride to meeting (95).
"The tallow candle was used for light in the evening. Most of
the candles were 'dips' although a few were run in moulds made for the
purpose." When animals were killed on the farm the tallow was saved and
tried out and rendered by heating. When enough had been accumulated it
was melted. Wicks twice the length of the candle were doubled over a
stick and repeatedly dipped into the tallow until the candles were large
enough for use. "The tallow candle made a dim, disagreeable light, as it
smoked considerably and required constant snuffing" or trimming of the
burned portion of the wick (96-97).
"Nearly every family made the soft soap used in washing clothes
and floors. Ashes were carefully saved and stored in a dry place. In the
spring the mash tub, holding sixty or seventy gallons, was set up and on
the bottom a row of bricks were set on edge. On them a framework was
placed which was covered with hemlock boughs or straw, over which a porous
cloth was placed. The tub was then filled with ashes. If any doubt
existed as to the strength of the lye, thus produced, a little lime was
put in. Boiling water was then poured on in small quantities, at frequent
intervals and this was allowed to settle. When no more water would be
taken it was left to stand for an hour or more, when the first lye was
drawn off. If an egg dropped into the lye floated, all was well and good
luck with the soap was certain.
"Grease that had accumulated during the year and been saved for
this purpose was then placed in a kettle with some of the lye, and when
boiled, if it did not separate when cooled, soft soap was the result.
Most farmers' wives dreaded soap making. It was one of the hardest day's
work of the year. Usually it was made a point to have the soap making
precede the spring cleaning" (97).
"Men generally rode horseback to meeting and elsewhere, and when a
woman went along she rode behind on a pillion, which was a small cushion
attached to the rear of the saddle with a narrow board suspended from the
cushion-a support for the women's feet. To assist in mounting and
dismounting horse blocks were used at the meetinghouse and in other public
places. Small articles were carried in saddle-bags, balanced on each side
of the horse. Grain was carried to mill laid across the horse's back,
half in each end of the sack" (97-98).
"While iron shovels were brought in from England and in a limited
way were made by local blacksmiths, most shovels used by farmers were made
of oak, the edges shod with iron. Hay and manure forks were made of iron
by the blacksmith. They were heavy, had large tines that bent easily, and
were almost always loose in the handle. It took a great deal of strength
to use them. Hoes were made by the blacksmiths, who also made axes,
scythes, knives, etc." (98).
"When help was wanted on the farm, the son of some neighbor who
was not as well off, or who had not enough work to profitably employ all
his sons, could be hired. He became one of the family, took an active
interest in his employer's business, and in not a few instances married
his daughter, and later with his wife succeeded to the ownership of the
farm. If help was wanted in the house, some girl in the neighborhood was
willing to accept the place. She was strong and ready, capable and
honest, and in the absence of her mistress was able to take the lead. She
was not looked upon as a servant, and often established herself
permanently by becoming the life partner of the son" (98-99).
"Clocks were seldom found in the farmhouse. Noon marks and
sundials answered the needs of the family and when the day was cloudy, one
must 'guess.' Because so many had no means of telling the time, it was
customary to make appointments for 'early candlelight'" (99).
"It was usual with most families to gather roots and herbs to be
used for medicinal purposes. Catnip, pennyroyal, sage, thoroughwort,
spearmint, tansy, elderblows, wormwood, and other plants were saved to be
used in case of sickness. Many of the old women who had reared families
of children were skilful in the use of these remedies and were sent for in
case of sickness, and would prescribe teas made from some of these herbs,
which were cut when in bloom and tied in small bundles and suspended from
the rafters on the garret to dry, causing a pleasant aromatic smell in the
upper part of the house" (99).
"The well was usually at some distance from the farmhouse and
often located in an exposed and wind-swept position requiring much daily
travel over a snowy and slippery path in winter and through mud and wet at
other times. From the well all the water used for domestic purposes was
brought into the house in buckets. The water in the well was usually
drawn by means of a well-sweep" (99).
"In some towns the selectmen were chosen by 'pricking.' A number
of names were written upon a sheet of paper. This was passed around and
each man pricked a hole against the names of his choice. The one having
the most pin holes was chosen first selectman, the next highest the
second, and the next the third" (99-100) [Now we know how archaic
Florida's election system really is!]
"When a couple decided to marry they made known their intention to
the town clerk who posted a notice of their intended marriage in the
meetinghouse. This was called 'being published.' By law this notice must
be published three Sabbaths before the ceremony was performed, so that any
one who knew of any reason why such a marriage should not take place"
might make their objection (100).
"Each landowner not only maintained his own fences around
cultivated fields, but also gave of his labor in building long ranges of
fencing around the common pasture lands in proportion to his interest in
the land. A law was enacted as early as 1633 requiring the fencing of corn
fields. The earliest fences were usually made of five rails and must be
up by early April when the cattle and hogs were turned out to roam at
large." As the New England farmers cleared their land for cultivation,
they used the stones removed from the fields to build stone walls around
the edges of their fields. A carefully built stone wall would last for
generations. Hedge fences were also in frequent use as they had been in
England (100).
"The roads outside the villages were seldom fenced." Most "were little
more than ill-defined paths winding their way across pastures and
cultivated fields. Whenever a dividing farm was reached, there would be a
gate or bars to be opened and closed by the traveler" (100).


Karl SchwerinSnailMail: Dept. of Anthropology
Univ. of New Mexico Albuquerque, NM 87131
e-mail:

Cultural anthropology...is valuable because it is constantly rediscovering
the normal. Edward Sapir (1949:151)

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